1.5 The study area

Written by Abbas Farshad

Location

The Netherlands, with a total area of about 34.000 km² (exclusive of water), and a population of more than 18 million, lies between latitudes 51º and 54ºN and longitudes 3º and 6 ºE. It is bordered in the north and the west by the North Sea and in the south and East by Belgium and Germany, respectively. Eastern Netherlands includes three provinces: Drenthe (2636 km² or roughly 7.8% of the total surface area of the Netherlands), Overijssel (3,322 km², the fourth largest province of the Netherlands; 9.9% of total surface), and Gelderland (the largest province with 4,967 km2, or 14.7% of the Netherlands’ land surface).

Geology

As far as soil survey is concerned geology of the Eastern Netherlands can be summarized in the terms ‘cover sand’, ‘glaciation (glacial/interglacial periods)’ and drift sand (Fig. 2.1). Most soils are formed in materials dating from the Quaternary (Pleistocene and Holocene), though in the Twente, for instance, east of the city of Almelo, and in the east of the line Haaksbergen-Delden- Kloosterhaar, many soils contain materials from the Tertiary too, consisting of fine sands, greenish in colour due to glauconite admixture, or, as it is still more often the case, of boulder clay and heavy loam, of marine origin (STIBOKA, 1965).

Fig. 2. 1: Soils parent material (after de Bakker, 1979)

(Approximate border of the Eastern Netherland is shown with a red dotted line)

Cover sand is an aeolian deposit, with various thicknesses, mainly of late Weichsel (Würm) age (Fig. 2.2). The deposition of the cover sands had a “niveo-eolish” character, i.e., the sand was deposited together with the snow during storms. The name also indicates that disturbances in the aeolian sedimentation have taken place during thaw periods due to the resulted water.

A very interesting example to many researchers is to observe in the Lutterzand in the Eastern Netherlands (52°19'60" N, 7°3'0" E, ~34m asl) (Vandenberghe et al, 2013) (Fig. 2.3). Four main phases of (fluvio) aeolian sedimentation have been differentiated in the Lutterzand sections, consistent with the Late Pleniglacial, the pre-Allerød Lateglacial, the Late Dryas, and the Late Holocene. From at least 25.2 ± 1.9 up to 19.9 ± 1.6 ka, the area was marked by a transition from fluvial to aeolian deposition under continuous permafrost conditions (Older Cover sand I). The Beuningen Gravel Bed is considered as the lithostratigraphic marker for permafrost degradation, shallow channelling and aeolian deflation associated with the formation of a desert pavement (Figs. 2.2 & 2.6).

Fig. 2.2: Würm/Weichsel* ien glacial period (115000-10000) (After Farshad, 2006).

*It is rather confusing to see different names used by European and Americans: Würm=Weichselien glacial period, Eemian interglacial period, Saalien glacial period are important to us because the Twente geological formation (cover sand, fluvioglacial and loess) and Drenthe formation (sand, clay, and silt/fine sand) date respectively from these periods. Also, important to know that the Bolling and the Alleord, including the Usselo layers date from the two warmer periods (Dryas) in Würm (Fig. 2.5).

In other places thin cover sands overly glacial till and/or fluviatile preglacial/ fluvioglacial materials, which are often gravelly loamy sand to sandy loam in texture and quite compact (Ex. Smalenbroek, cover sand as veneer on the Enschede-Oldenzaal Stuwwal (ice-pushed ridges): www.landschapoverijsel.nl) (Fig 2.4). Drift sand observed in Fig. 2.5, in the form of low dunes lying along the Dinkel river resulted from the accumulation of medium to coarse sands, sometimes with large amounts of iron-cemented sand pebbles (Huissteden et al. 1986), that date from a dry period in Holocene. It is thought that the drifting sand is formed because of human activities, leading to local erosion of the upper part of the Late-glacial sequences and redeposition of the eroded materials, wherein the podzolization process has taken place.

Fig. 2.3: Dinkel Valley-Lutterzand in Twente (after Huissteden et al. 1986)

Fig. 2.4: ‘T Stroink and Smalenbroek areas, superb of Enschede (Farshad, 2020)

Fig. 2.5: Stratigraphy of the exposure at the Dinkel in the Lutterzand (Farshad, 2006)

Legend translated: Holocceen=Holocene; Llaat Glaciaal= Late Glacial; Weichselien=Weichselian; Preglaciaal=Preglacial; Interstadiaal= Interstadial; Stuifzand=Drift-sand; Bodem en veen= soil (mineral material) and peat; Jong Dekzand = young cover sand; Oud Dekzand= Old Cover Sand; laag van= layer of (Ex. Beuningen and Usselo layers)

Fig. 2.6: Beuningen layer (see figs. 2.2 and 2.5 too)

The Pleistocene epoch is characterized by a succession of cold and warm times, respectively, ice ages and interglacial times. Several ice ages are distinguished, of which the last two, the Riss and the Würm glaciation, have been particularly significant for our area (Fig 2.7&2.9). Although the Ice that was coming from the North did not always reach The Netherlands but even so consequences in the preglacial areas are remarkable (Figs. 2.8, 2.9, 2.10).

Fig. 2.7: Quaternary (Pleistocene and Holocene) (Farshad, 2006)

Regarding the part of the Pleistocene prior to the Riss glacial cover, it can be noted that important river deposits were formed in this area, mainly consisting of sand and gravel. They rest on the tertiary deposits and reach considerable thickness in the centre and west of the Overijssel province.

The Riss Ice Age

During the interglacial, also known as Eem-Time-- between the Riss and the Würm Ice Age, the climate was warm. In the Riss the Land Ice reached the whole Twente and penetrated the pre-existing valley of the Rhine at the location of the current IJssel valley. The ice lobes lying in depressions pushed and moved the soil layers, that had already been deposited, laterally into hills, resulting in the formation of pushed moraines and boulder clay deposits (Fig. 2.8). Elbersen (2020) describe a soil profile formed in these materials in a quarry in Hazenberg.

Fig. 2.8: Ice-pushed features (moraines) (STIBOKA, 1965)

Fig. 2.9: Ice lobs originated in- and coming from the North (Farshad, 2006).

Fig. 2.10: Situation in Weichselien (Farshad, 2006)

The Würm (Weichsel) ice age

The last ice age, when the area was not covered by land ice, but very cold climate conditions prevailed here. In the coldest part of the Würm nothing could grow except Dryas Octopetala, a typical plant that grow in the north pole. Lack of vegetation gave way to the wind to abrase the dry bottom of the rivers and the bottom of the North Sea. Characteristic for this ice age are the cover sands that were deposited during storms at the same time as the snow falling. These cold periods are named after the above-mentioned plant—Dryas. This situation changed too, so that there were two warmer periods, namely Bolling and Alleord, when forest vegetation, such as beaches and conifers appeared, and soils began to form in the cover sands. The Usselo layer that is resulted from an extensive forest fire date from the Allerod period (Elbersen, 2020). In the eve of the Würm Ice Age in numerous depressions of the cover sand landscape, peat began to grow on. The climate change that occurred about 10.000 years ago led to the rise of the sea as well as the groundwater level and consequently a wet condition, that is an ideal situation for peat forming prevailed. Millenia later, about 6.000 BC, peat was visible in the swamp, known now as Bargerveen in Drenthe (provincie drenthe.nl). Peat growth continued in the Holocene too, when the climate became milder and more humid extensive peatlands developed in various places. These peat bogs excavated in the last centuries for peat extraction (an important source of energy) and later turned into peat-colonial soils. The complexity of the peat forming process is well visible in the legend of the 1:200.000 scale soil map (STIBOKA, 1960), under the headings “Veengronden” (Laagveen, Hoogveen), and Veenontginnigsgronden (drooggemaakte meren, plassen, trekgaten, en veenkoloniën).

Geomorphology

The geomorphology of the Netherlands can be explained by the structural geology of the region, including Belgium and Germany. It forms a part of a geosyncline that is bordered in the south by the Cambro-Silurian Brabant Massif and Devonian Ardennes, and in the south and east by the Rheinische Schiefergebirge (Eifel and Sauerland). The large depression, where The Netherlands occurs in, have gradually sunk and infilled with Quaternary sediments (De Bakker, 1979). From a topography viewpoint, The land slopes from the south-east to the northwest, with the highest point 321m asl and the lowest point- north of Rotterdam- of 6.6 m below sea level.

In the Eastern Netherlands—The area under study is almost level to gently sloping, including also the level to undulating parts of the cover sand and dune lands, and smaller in extension, the narrow river alluvial plain. The irregularities include the scattered hills (pushed moraines; Fig. 2.8), the sand dunes along the Ijssel, Regge and the Dinkel rivers, and in places, the man-made constructions (dikes and quarries remnants for mining peat) control the hydrologic status (Fig. 2.11). Also, important for geopedologists and from an agricultural viewpoint are the levees and the back swamps along the rivers and to a lesser extent, along the streams.

Fig. 2.11: The main rivers, streams and waterways in the province of Overeijssel (After STIBKA, 1965)

Vegetation and Land use

The vegetation cover is of semi-natural (ex. Heathland) and near-natural (ex. Wood-pasture) types; hardly any ‘natural vegetation. Depending on the type of soil—calcareous or acid, rich or poor, waterlogged, or well-drained, etc.) forests of such trees as alder, beech, birch, hornbeam, oak, and willow in different combinations and with different undergrowth formed the vegetation cover on mineral soils. On the contrary, in the areas with eutrophic organic soil, a treeless wilderness with peat mosses formed the cover.

A glance at the history of agriculture in the Netherlands (Standard/Het Spectrum, 1973), reveals that Dutch agriculture initially had a mainly national-friendly character, but it changed after 1880. The opening up of the steppe regions in Russia, the USA, Canada, Argentina and South Africa by means of railways allowed the development of an extensive and highly mechanized grain cultivation in the areas, flooding the world market with cheap grain, which caused the great agricultural crisis, also affected the Dutch farmers.

In the years after 1880, a clear change took place in the direction of specialization and breeding, which is particularly apparent from the enormous growth of labour-intensive horticulture and dairy farming. A favourable side-effect was that at the same time specialized agriculture found a very important market in the rapidly growing industrial constructions of the surrounding countries, while on the other hand, the introduction of fertilizers necessitated increased exploitation of the soil and the need for sandy soils to keep livestock for the purpose of supplying manure.

Although the situation in agriculture quickly improved because of these radical structural changes, its sensitivity to economic activity had increased significantly; this was clearly shown in the international crisis of 1929 when buyer countries began to protect their own products and restrict imports.

This time, the Dutch government intervened directly by promulgating a series of crisis laws aimed at protecting agriculture; the strong patronage of agriculture by the government since then, however, has not prevented the latter from a sharp decline in importance, even though productivity has risen very significantly during that period. Later, efforts were being made to reorganize agriculture by buying up dwarf farms and adding the land that has become available to stock farms, by applying land consolidation and by increasingly intensive research.

In 1967, 76.8% of Dutch soil was taken up by cultivated land, 8.8% by forest and 5.1% by wasteland. In that same year, 33.6% of the cultivated land area consisted of arable land, 60.8% of grassland and 5.4% of horticultural land. Based on the prevailing farm type in agriculture, a distinction is made in the Netherlands:

1. the pure arable areas, on the old and young marine clay soils and on the subsidence soils (peat colonies in Groningen and Drenthe), with medium-sized (20-50ha) and very large (>50ha) ha) and modern farms and a very varied production (cereals, sugar beet, consumption and seed potatoes, pulses, flax, rapeseed, etc.) on the marine clay, the latter in contrast to the valley soils, where potatoes and rye predominate, which means that the production plan takes on a one-sided character;

2. the areas with mixed farms, located on the cover sands in the east and south of the Netherlands, in the river clay area and around the major cities, with predominantly small and labour-intensive farms, in which arable farming (cereals, fodder crops, sugar beet, potatoes) is used by livestock farming (cattle, poultry and pigs), which forms the basis for important agricultural industries (dairy industry, export slaughterhouses), while fruit growing also occupies an important place in the river clay area (Betuwe) and in South Limburg;

3. the pure livestock farming areas in the Utrecht-Holland low moor landscape, West Friesland, the Gelderse Vallei, the head of Overijssel, almost all of Friesland and the Groningen Westerkwartier, with medium-sized companies (20-50 ha), on the sea clay in Friesland, grouped in blocks mound villages, in the low moor areas in the form of regional villages with elongated plots, and with the main products: consumption milk, butter and cheese.

Grain maize has been grown in the Netherlands since the 1930s, in small acreage, with a gradual increase until the mid-fifties, to 15,000 ha. Due to the unfavourable ripening conditions and market developments, the area of grain maize declined rapidly in the late 1950s. From that moment on, interest in maize in the form of silage maize increased. There came soon better varieties, with adapted cultivation and harvesting techniques. Silage maize came in around 1960, grown quite scattered on mainly the sandy soils in place of fodder beets and rye. Soon it became the main fodder crop, expanding from 50 Km² in 1970 to 1700 Km² in 1985 and now it is by far the largest after grass fodder crop.

Climate

Forgetting the recent changes in climatic conditions, the climate of the country has often been described as oceanic, characterized by mild winters and an evenly distributed precipitation over the year, often with a deficit during the growing season. The temperature varies from + 0 to + 20 ºC.

Although one may not expect a different climatic condition in a small country as it is the case in the Netherlands, but it is a fact that the eastern part of the country is sub-oceanic, with dryer and warmer than the eastern part. The number of rainy days in the eastern Netherlands varies from 8 in April to 13 in January and December, and the day temperature from 1 ºC to 23 ºC. (Fig. 2.12).

Fig. 2.12: Some data showing climatic condition in the Eastern Netherlands

Soils

To remember what are the factors that play role in the formation of soils, reference may be made to the Jenny statement: S=f (Climate=Cl, Biotic factors =O, Relief =R, Parent material =P, Time = T,…..), simply known as CLORPT (Jenny, 1941). In other words, Soils are dynamic, natural bodies in the landscape and evolve over time. The first stage of development is weathering of bedrock to form unconsolidated rock fragments, the parent material. This is the bed where soil will form in, that is, the formation of horizons (horizonation). Horizonation is taken care of by pedogenic processes, whereas geogenic processes (e.g., sedimentation) are responsible for the lateral variation.

The second reminder which might be of importance to mention here is to briefly look into what the soil, being composed of solid, liquid, air and water, does for us:

• Soil provides a physical matrix, chemical environment, and biological setting for water, nutrient, air, and heat exchange for living organisms.

• Soil controls the distribution of rainfall or irrigation water to runoff, infiltration, storage, or deep drainage. Its regulation of water flow affects the movement of soluble materials, such as nitrate, nitrogen, or pesticides.

• Soil regulates the biological activity and molecular exchanges among solid, liquid, and gaseous phases. This affects nutrient cycling, plant growth, and decomposition of organic materials.

• Soil acts as a filter to protect the quality of water, air, and other resources.

• Soil provides mechanical support for living organisms and their structures. People and wildlife depend on this function.

• Soil is the history book of the landscape (see the attached article on climate change).

A short review of the soil-forming factors might be of help to understand the soil distribution throughout the country:

-Climate (Cl): The soil climate can be described as Udic moisture regime, and Mesic temperature regime (USDA, 2006). There are five soil moisture regimes (Aquic, Aridic, Udic, Ustic, and Xeric), and five temperature regimes (Cryic, Frigid, Mesic, Thermic, and Hyperthermic) defined in the USDA Soil Classification System (Soil Taxonomy). Udic is “A soil moisture regime that is neither dry for as long as 90 cumulative days nor for as long as 60 consecutive days in the 90 days following the summer solstice at periods when the soil temperature at 50 cm below the surface is above 5 ºC”. Mesic is “A soil temperature regime that has mean annual soil temperatures of 8 ºC or more but <15 ºC and >6 ºC difference between mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures at 50 cm below the surface”.

-Biotic factors (O): Reference is made to Soil animals, which have played a role in the homogenization of the soils, Vegetation (see the section on vegetation and land use), and Man (human influence on Dutch soils).

-Relief (R): See the section on geology for general relief. In short, the two irregularities are the hills with the highest point 103m asl (north of Arnhem), and the low-lying surfaces, with locally 3 meters below sea level (Ex., surrounding the Schiphol). What is also important to mention here is the occurrence of small differences in elevation, i.e., microrelief, which plays an important role in soil variability, even at the farm scale.

-Parent material (P): Parent material ranges from sandy (cover sand and dunes) to clayey particle size (mainly fluviatile in the Eastern Netherlands), not forgetting the extent of the peats (partly covered by fluviatile sediments in the Eastern Netherlands).

-Time (T): Although it is known that the materials in which soils, particularly in the Eastern Netherlands) have been formed are of the Pleistocene (10.000-12.000 years old) and the Holocene (0-1000 years old), it is not easy to speak of the time when soils started to form.

Referring to the legend of the soil map (STIBOKA, 1960) one sees that several characteristics, such as texture (fine to coarse sand, loam, clay), calcareousness (rich or poor in lime content), organic matter content, (mineral versus peat soils) wetness or groundwater level (well-drained to poorly drained), origin (fluviatile, aeolian, and glacial deposits), age (recent, old) of their parent material are used to classify soils. Soils have also been classified based on the dominant soil-forming processes (e.g., Entisols or Vaaggronden, Podzols, man-made Plaggen soils, etc.) (Alterra-rapport 948).

After the above short introduction, we will glance hereafter at some of the soils occurring in the Eastern Netherlands, making use of available data extracted from De Bakker (1979) and soil reports (STIBOKA, 1961), Alterra-rapport 948, and our own limited fieldwork.

A very important category in the Dutch Soil Classification System is the “Zandgronden (dekzanden, gestuwd preglaciaal, fluvioglacial)”, under which different soils (in the categories kalkrijk, kalk arm, hoog, middelhoog, and laag, etc) are described. The few examples- given here below- show the soil distribution variations in the area:

- Laaghumus podzol met ondiepe B-horizont, in niet lemig fijn zand 

• A1p 0-18 cm: Black (10YR 2/1); rel. high organic matter O.M. content (humus 6.0 gl.v.); fine sand; pH (KCl) = 4.7.

• B2 18-30 cm: Dark reddish brown (5YR3/4- 7.5YR 3/4); humus content 4.5 gl.v.; fine sand; pH (KCl) = 4.4.

• B3  30-38 cm: Brown to dark brown (7.5 YR 5/6-4/4); rel. poor in humus (1.5 gl.v.); fine sand; pH (KCl) = 4.3.

• C1 38-   : Yellowish brown (10YR 5/4-6/4); poorer in humus (0.9 gl.v.); fine sand; pH (KCl) = 4.3.   

- Lage humuspodzol met diepe, krachtige B-horizont, in niet lemig, fine zand

• A1p  0-22 cm: Black (10YR 2/1); somehow rusty; rich in humus (8.3 gl.v.); fine sand

• B21  22-56 cm: Dark brown (7.5YR 4/3); rel. poor in organic matter content (humus= 1.7); fine sand; strongly developed, unconsolidated B-horizon; pH (KCl) = 5.8.

• B22  56-85 cm: Brown (7.5 YR 5/4); poor in humus; fine sand; loose (un- consolidated).

• B3    85-          : Yellowish brown (5/4-6/4); poor in organic matter (0.7); fine sand; pH (KCl) = 6.0. 

  - Venige lage humuspozol in lemig fijn zand

• A1p  0-24 cm: Black (10YR 2/1); peaty, loamy fine sand; humus is steaky and rough (17.3 gl.v.); pH (KCl) = 3.9.

• AB   24- 40cm: Black to dark brown (10YR 2/1.5), rich in humus; loamy fine sand, rather firm and cheesy feeling.

• B2    40-56 cm: Dark yellowish brown (10YR 3/4), rich in organic matter (OM); light loamy fine sand.

• C11   56-90 cm: Light yellowish brown (10YR 6/4); poor in organic carbon content; Light loamy fine sand

• C12    90-         : Pale brown (10YR 6/3); poor in OM; Light loamy fine sand.

 - Lage humuspodzol in lemig fijn zand

• A1p    0-20 cm: Black (10YR 2/ 1); rich in humus (9.3 gl.v.); Loamy fine sand; pH (KCl) = 5.2.

• B21    20-29: Pinkish dark brown (5YR 3/3); poor in OM; Loamy fine sand; soft feeling.

• B22    29-45: Brown (7.5 YR 4/4); poor in OM; loamy fine sand; soft feeling.

• C        45-    : Greyish yellow (10YR 8/5); poor in OM (humus= 0.6 gl.v.); Light loamy fine sand; pH = 4.4.

- Gleygronden in zeer arm zand,
- Gleygronden in verweringsmateriaal van keileem,

- Oude bouwlanden en podzolen,

- Associaties van lage en hoge gronden (e.g., Twente-associatie), and many other kinds to be read in the above-mentioned references.

A general remark about all soils developed in sandy material (cover sand of the Pleistocene and the aeolian sand of the Holocene age) is that the two vital materials, namely clay and organic matter are either absent or if exist (when the texture is loamy sand or in places light sandy loam) their amount is insufficient. The reason why these two components are vital is that they play an important role in holding moisture and increasing the ability of the soil to exchange cations (CEC). Comparing these soils with, for instance, those developed in “Rivierkleigronden” and the “Veengronden” one notices the difference in terms of fertility.

- Rivierkleigronden (an example: Kalkrijke, zware stroomruggrond)

• A1p    0-20 cm: Greyish brown (10YR 5/2); peaty; rich in lime content; sandy clay; pH (KCl) = 7.0.

• C21g   20-70 cm: Brown (10YR 5/3); slightly mottled; poor in OM; rich in lime content; sandy clay; pH (KCl) = 7.1

• C22g    70-110 cm: Light brown (10YR 6/3); slightly mottled; poor in OM; clay, rich in lime content.

• C23g    110-120 cm: Light greyish yellow (10YR 7/3), mottled; high lime content; light sandy clay loam.

• G          120-            : Grey in colour; limy sand (rich in lime) 

- Veengronden

The soils developed in this parent material are quite complex, partly because of disturbances caused by mining. In places, peat has been cut for meters and removed to be used for fuel. The formed quarries are either sanded or covered by the loose, spongy young Sphagnum peaty material that has been removed from the ground surface (some 20-30 cm) before cutting the site. The two ‘laagveen’ and ‘hoogveen’ groups are logically created considering the location of the peat area in relation to the groundwater level. At Vriezenveen, part of the raised bog is under cultivation since a long time, the land has been arisen by a soil manure cover, which consists of humous sand to sandy peat. The following description is of such a profile:  

• Ap    0-30cm: Black (10YR 2/1); mucky peat to peaty sand; the man-made layer consisting of all kinds of rests (peaty, charcoal, constructing materials)

• C1     30-90 cm: Old veenmosveen

• C2     90-110 cm: Very dark (2.5Y 3/2 – 3/1); lake-floor deposit, ver fine sandy loam; pH (KCl) = 3.8.

Another example of the raised bogs overlying Pleistocene sands in the Drenthe Province, is a wasteland at the time of soil description. Parent material is high moor peat, mainly derived from sphagnum species (See pictures below: De Bakker, 1979):

• A1     0-10cm: Black (5YR 2/1); mucky peat, strongly moulded with few recognizable plant remains; some sand grains, fragments of glass and other resistant material; abrupt, smooth boundary.  

• C21    10-28 cm: Reddish-brown (5YR4/4) peat, non-moulded and non-weathered, coarse peat (so-called white peat); abrupt, smooth boundary.

• C22     28-48 cm: Dark reddish-brown (5YR 3/3) peat, non-moulded, slightly weathered less coarse peat (grey peat); clear, wavy boundary.

• 4,5, 6 & 7 48-120 cm plus: Dark brown (5YR 3/2); becomes darker with depth, non-moulded, somewhat weathered peat (the so-called black peat).     

Fig. 2.13: A few examples of the soil profiles.

As already mentioned, it is not our intention to describe all soils that occur in the study area. The main purpose to refer to some of them is to demonstrate the soil distribution variability, that is strongly linked with parent material, and to physiographic conditions and land use, that have controlled the role of groundwater level in soil formation. The variability is not only in small scale maps noticeable, but it is also strikingly available at field level (Fig. 2.14).

Fig. 2.14: Soil variability at the farm Field level; shown in three auger holes, one on top of the microrelief (Profile A) and two in both sides of the microrelief (Profile B) (Drafted Farshad, 2021)

Social Structure

Often, when speaking of the social structure of the Dutch people one refers to the 17th century, remembering such outstanding names as Hugo de Groot (1583-1645) scholar of international law, the physicist Christiaan Huygens (1629- 1695), the inventor and user of the microscope Anthonie van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1677), and many other poets, composers, great painters, such as Rembrandt Harmensz van Rijn (1606-1669), Johannes Vermeer van Delft, and many others. But life in the Netherlands began far deeper in history (Schőffer, 1973). As in many other cases, here too, the geographical conditions have played an important role in forming the Dutch. The low land, including Vlaanderen (Belgium), was a part of the sea—a deep bay on the coastline of the North Sea. The geological growth of the land started some 250.000 years ago by the Rhine and Meuse rivers, forming new land. Changes in climatic conditions are to be read in the section on ‘geology’ (this book). The stone objects found by archaeologists date as far back as 200.000 to 180.000 years. A human skull, found during excavations for a canal in the Twente is dated about 30.000 BC. It is believed that the way the tribes lived in the area must have been comparable with that of the Eskimoes of today. Ther other crafts/monuments that are found and thought to date back from two to three millennia BC show that people were not only good at sharpening stones that were used for hunting and fishing but also good at making pottery and engineering works, like what they have done in building the Hunebeds (Fig. 2.15). Hunebedden (Hunebeds = the communal graves) are the oldest monuments in the country, built from huge boulders that were transported by ice to the Drenthe province during the Ice Age (see above: Section on geology).

Fig. 2.15: Hunebedden in Drenthe, near the Borger village

The Dutch continued with hard-working, constructing dikes and won the fights against the seawater so good that when speaking of water management Dutch experts are on top of the list, worldwide. So is it with agriculture too! Development in agriculture was slower as compared to industrialization, because for a long time it had been very profitable in its old form, and not until the agrarian crisis of 1880-1895 did the need for change was felt (Schőffer, 1973). In this connection, one can pay a visit to the los hoes (lős huus) in Ootmarsum en/of Drenthe. Los- hoes means open huis, a typic feature of the Twente and the Achterhoek. It is a sort of open museum demonstrating how farmers worked and lived in the past, till the 19th century. In these houses, farmers and livestock live together. In the yard of the house, one sees the water-well, tools that were used for preparing the land, harvesting, etc, all looking very primitive. This situation lasted rather long in our study area even though the industrial revolution had started after 1860. The reason for the delay as Schőffer (1973) writes was that the imported colonial products, from Indonesia, satisfy the needs of the country and hence no change seemed necessary. Besides, England’s need for grain, dairy products, and the meat was met by the Dutch agrarian products. The situation changed when the price of the Dutch products could not compete with that of the American and Russian prices. This was the time when the Dutch government was forced to look for other means, not only in the field of agriculture but also in strengthening the industry. Construction of railways, the two harbours of Rotterdam and Amsterdam, textile factories in the Twente, and cultivation of crops more suitable to the Dutch soil than grain crops, such as beetroot, tulip bulbs and vegetables where artificial fertilizer was used. Modernization speeded up in all directions, for instance, the establishment of the bank to lend money to farmers, encouraging them to make the wastelands-- such as the heathland in the Drenthe—productive. In short, what the Netherlands is now did not happen in a few years, but during centuries and with hard-working people and good management.

So far, a very short picture of why and how the Dutch succeeded to get to the stage where we are now. Although there is no consensus among researchers regarding the link between modernization and industrialization, but one observes that modern societies worldwide are the industrial societies. The Netherlands is a good example of such a process, where industrialization opened the gate to modernization. It should also be mentioned that modernization is a continuous process and that it has moved from the urbanized Western sections to the rural Eastern provinces of the country. This fact has been clearly observable in the Netherlands. Like any other change in society, modernization has also shown its negative effects on people’s health, addiction, getting spoiled, crime, and other societal problems.

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